Origins of Democracy in Antiquity?

Antike Ursprünge der Demokratie? was the title of a lecture Professor Hans-Joachim Gehrke gave in the framework of the Samstags-Uni. This summer semester, the series of presentations is devoted to "Democracy,"

Yes, the Greek polis (cities) developed in communities and particularly in Athens democratic structures that could be looked upon to be the origins of modern democracy.

A pompous, lurid title

No, the ancient Greeks did not save democracy but defended Athens against Asian intruders.

Here is a comparison of Athens' "democracy" with modern democracies

Voting: Free men only (about 10% the people)  > The adult population 

Representation of the people: Direct > Representatives

Jurisdiction: People are the judges > Separation of powers

Religion: Part of the system  > Separation of church and state

Equality:  Exclusion of women and slaves > Basic human rights

Athens' agora around 500 BC

The most important meeting place in the ancient polis (cities) was the agora (marketplace), where you paid in tetradrachma and now pay in euros.

Tradition: Carrying owls to Athens?
Instead, carry them in your pocket when visiting the agora.

In ancient Greece, education was a valuable commodity. People must learn to live in community. Decency and justice are necessary, and these virtues should be taught so that, according to Plato euboulia, i.e., excellence in counsel and sound judgment can be achieved.

Notice the tablets with the law set in stone.

Ultimately, Athenian democracy developed in tension between dictatorship and the rule of law. Kylon's attempted coup was followed by Drakon's legislation, "The editors (anagrapheis) must write down his law (nomos) on manslaughter [...] together with the scribe on a marble stele and erect it in front of the Stoa Basileios ..."

Ancient Greek law tablet

However, it was the laws of Solon (594 BC), known from school lessons, that made it difficult to establish a tyranny. Solon wrote, "To teach this to the Athenians has occupied my mind since most of the evils of the city are brought by unlawfulness (dysnomia). Legality (eunomia), however, proves everything to be well-ordered and straightforward and imposes ample restraints on the unjust. "

"I achieved this by exercising my power (krótos) in combining coercion (bía) and law (dikē) and completed it as I had promised. The laws (thesmoí) I wrote are equally for the bad (kakós) and the good (agathós)."

How Athens' full citizens (men) participated in managing the polis.
Note that in many cases men are not elected, but a lot decides.

The polis (police!), i.e., the state, stands against violence and is linked to the law. The people stand for and commit themselves to the rule of law (nomocracy).

The Athenians had their laws chiseled in stone for consistency. The protection of laws through citizen involvement was the path to democracy.

Prof.  Gehrke showed the various types of rules according to Polybios. The best illustration in the form of a table I found in the German Wikipedia:

On the left, the number of rulers (one, some or all)
Above, the orientation (common good or self-interest)

Changing the ending "ie" to "y" means you'll have nearly all the English words. Ochlocracy stands for mob rule. 

The Roman Republic had three pillars: the People's Assembly, the Senate, and the Consuls, elected for a fixed term.

The Constitution of the US is based on the Greek model, as explained in the Federalist Papers.

The autonomous basic unit for democracy is always the citizenry (civitas in the west and polis in the east): civitas sibi princeps (the city [itself] is the prince [the ruler]).

Indeed, democratic structures work best in small entities. On June 9, we will hold elections to the European Parliament and local elections, i.e., we will elect a new city council in Freiburg. Red Barn has the choice between more than 900 candidates for 48 seats. Indeed, the coming city council will work as harmoniously as the old one.

The situation is alright, too, on the level of the German states. Coalitions of parties work for the benefit of their "citizens." However, political quarrels develop as entities become bigger. The opposition attacks not only the government but also the parties supporting the government and their members personally. Our political culture is going down the drain. 

But who am I telling this?

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Happy Days at Obersalzberg

Last night, Red Baron went to the Theater der Immoralisten, a well-known stage in Freiburg, to see Happy Days at Obersalzberg, written and directed by Manuel Kreitmeier. Why the title of this typically German play was in English goes over my head.

The play is set in 1944 and features the Führer Adolf Hitler, his mistress Eva Braun, Hitler's personal physician Doctor Morell, and architect and armaments minister Albert Speer. Later, SS Reichsführer Heinrich Himmler makes a short appearance.

Those pre-war years. Hitler reads the local newspaper Berchtesgadener Anzeiger at his Berghof.
A photo taken in late 1938s (©LIFE Picture Collection)

With the curtain still down, the play begins with a few remarks from a guide who explains to us, the tourists, what it looked like on the Obersalzberg back then when Nazi celebrities went in and out of the Berghof. Historical film footage by Eva Braun, Hitler's mistress, and a trained film assistant, is projected onto the curtain and shows the Führer's and his entourage's life at the Berghof.

At times, the performance reminded me of the alienated scenes in Bert Brecht's Mr. Puntila and his servant Matti. 

A quote from the great German playwright fits here, "The great political criminals must be exposed, and especially ridiculed. For they are, above all, not great political criminals but the perpetrators of great political crimes, which is something quite different."

Manuel Kreitmeier has exploited precisely the stylistic element of comedy to gain access to the incomprehensible events of the Third Reich. However, unlike Chaplin's The Great Dictator, the focus is on the bourgeoisie life in Hitler's Berghof.

Hitler and Eva Braun eat Linzer Torte.
An allusion to Adolf's dream of Linz as Germany's cultural capital (©Manuel Kreitmeier)

There are the recurring afternoons with coffee and cake, Hitler's monologues, and finally, the daily excursions to the Mooslahner Kopf.

Albert Speer stands a little awkwardly on the terrace of the Berghof
(©National Archives Collection of Foreign Records Seized)

On those walks, Hitler's repetition of the question, "What have I done wrong?" is particularly striking. No one around him dares to give him weighty answers. Only Albrecht Speer finally squeezes out, "Dunkirk* perhaps?"

*At "Dunkirk, after the Blitzkrieg against France, the Wehrmacht failed to destroy the British bridgehead, so the encircled troops could escape to England, for the most part, by adventurous means in small boats.

Following this answer, Hitler collapses, and birdshit* lands on his uniform. 

*In 2018, AfD chairman Alexander Gauland described the Nazi era as being just a "birdshit" of German history.

Der Führer with Eva and German shepherd Blondi at the terrasse of the Berghof
 (©Federal Archive)

Later, Speer drowns Blondi's puppies because, in Hitler's opinion, they will not make it over the winter; they are not worth living. This is reminiscent of Governor Kristi Noem, but it is more obvious an allusion to the death of the forced laborers employed in Germany's armaments industry, whose inhumane conditions only became known after Speer's death.

During the performance, Hitler frequently looked at his wristwatch, which stopped not at five minutes to twelve but at four to twelve.  

©Manuel Kreitmeier

Then he addresses his physician, "Our last afternoon, doctor. Your steroids and vitamins could not avert the inevitable: Germany has failed! It must fall down." Hitler leaves. 

The end is near when Eva prepares her luggage to join her "Führer" in the Berlin bunker. 

Today's right-wingers advertise the seemingly "good old days" when all was right with the world. The author counters this at the end of the play, "Don't do as we did!"

Applause, applause, and thank you!

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The Fairy Tale of Cheap Nuclear Power

ends, "Electricity produced from nuclear power is cheaper than electricity produced by renewable energies. And power reactors live happily ever after. "

This is not the correct ending. Old reactors are phased out, and cheap electricity is no longer available when they die.

Nuclear power from existing plants was one of the cheapest forms of energy to close the acute supply gaps caused by the discontinuation of cheap Russian gas. The variable electricity generation costs for existing nuclear power plants are 20 to 25 euros per megawatt hour. This includes, for example, the costs of fuel rods and the maintenance and operation of the getting-on-in-years plants.

However, we must not forget the so-called hidden costs of nuclear power. It only appears cheaper than green electricity because the massive taxpayer subsidies for nuclear power - in Germany between 1950 and 2010, more than 200 billion euros - are usually not taken into account.

Nuclear heritage in Germany (©Der Spiegel)

Finally, we must add the costs for the final storage of nuclear waste and incident and accident risks. Nuclear power is one of the most expensive ways of generating electricity if these costs are considered. Today's society and future generations are burdened with accumulated nuclear waste. Taxpayers pay four-fifths of the expenses for its disposal.

 
Still, since most of the old nuclear power plants have been written off, their continued operation is tantamount to a license to print money.

The situation doesn't look so bright for nuclear power plants that recently came into operation or those still under construction.

Long construction periods and increased safety requirements are driving up the costs of building new reactors to the extent that the generation costs per megawatt hour now exceed those for green electricity.

©ZDF

In Finland, the Olkiluoto nuclear power plant cost €11 billion, 4 times more than planned.

©ZDF

Flamanville 3 on the English Channel in France was 6 times more expensive at €19 billion. Electricity will cost 110 to 120 euros per megawatt hour, double the price of the two reactors already in operation. And the new reactor will have to be shut down already in 2026 because its cover must be replaced..

©ZDF

The twin reactor at Hinkley Point in the southwest of the UK was initially expected to cost €21 billion but is now estimated to cost at least €50 billion. By the way, who wants to learn about Nuclear power stations on television at 6:14 a.m.?

Stanford University professor Mark Z. Jacobson wrote, "Investing in new nuclear power is the surest way to climate disaster." He is assisted by Ben Wealer from the Technical University of Berlin, who succinctly said, "[Nuclear] blocks the cash we need for renewables."

Here is a comparison of energy costs.

©US Energy

As the cost of renewables continues to decrease, nuclear power costs are increasing. Between 2009 and 2021, renewables like wind and solar have declined by 90 percent, while nuclear power has increased by 33 percent.

©Der Spiegel

Above is the development of electricity produced in Germany over the years from various energy sources.

©AEE

While Germany boasts that more than 50% of the electricity was produced by renewable energy in 2023, the situation doesn't look so bright on the world scale.

Breakdown of the primary energy consumption from fossil fuels, nuclear, and renewables worldwide
(©Energy Institute)

Even the most optimistic assessments suggest it could take more than 30 years to transition the world to renewable energy. Eventually, the economic question of nuclear energy and renewables becomes furtive. We no longer have 30 years before the climate catastrophe strikes, and even if we increase nuclear power dramatically, it will not shorten the time we have left considerably.

Development of nuclear power in Europe.
France, in particular, is pushing nuclear energy as a "green" energy (©Der Spiegel)

UN Secretary-General Guterres recently called for a dramatic increase in spending on renewables, saying, "Had we invested massively in renewable energy in the past, we would not be so dramatically at the mercy […] of fossil fuel markets."

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Tyranny of the Majority or the Minority? Development of the American Democracy Since the Writing of the Constitution

As part of the "Democracy" lecture series at Freiburg's Samstags-Uni, yesterday, Professor Manfred Berg spoke about

   

The lecture hall was fuller than ever. The audience waited eagerly for some helpful comments on a possible President Trump. But first, Professor Berg spoke about the historical development of American democracy.

What was new to me was that the United States was founded as a republic, not a democracy. But at the latest, since the German Revolution of 1848, the two concepts have blurred into one, when Friedrich Hecker demanded in the pre-parliament in Frankfurt that only a Federal Republic modeled on the North American free states can ensure the unity and freedom of Germany.

The revolution failed, as did the attempt to introduce democracy permanently in the Weimar Republic.

Following the Second World War, the Americans fulfilled Hecker's demand by successfully transferring their Republican system to the Federal Republic of Germany. We are still thankful.

Professor Berg showed a slide listing the primary conditions of democracy.

He then categorized the history of American democracy.

 

Checks and balances are the firm corsets of American democracy where ambition counteracts ambition.

The first transition of power between two presidents occurred peacefully after the 1800 election. This tradition was broken with the last presidential election.

Click to enlarge

I had never seen such an informative power distribution map on the eve of the Civil War of 1860.

The freed slaves were given the right to vote during Reconstruction. Yet, 160 years later, some States continue to hurdle the independent, free exercise of voting with administrative and bureaucratic requirements that discriminate against entire groups of voters.

The demographic development in the States to 2045 shows that the proportion of the white population is being pushed into a minority, primarily due to Hispanic immigration. This is a cause of division in American society, too.

The widening gap between the rich and the "poor" is not unique to the US. Social explosives?

The suffragette refers to the treatment of the Germans at Versailles by President Wilson, who, unlike the British and French, gave the Germans credit for not having lived in a democracy.

In the end, Professor Berg did not fail to promote his new book, A House Divided.

©Time

A future President Trump has announced gruesome things. After a chaotic first term, he is already having his vassals prepare for his likely second term.

Trump will undoubtedly try to increase his executive power at the expense of the judiciary and the legislature.

He plans to demote the Department of Justice to his instrument of revenge. Trump said at a rally, "That means if I win and somebody wants to run against me, I'll call my attorney general. I say, 'Listen, indict him'."

When murmurs in the audience occurred, Trump continued in the voice of his future attorney general, "But he hasn't done anything wrong. I don't know." Trump ended with an order, "Indict him on income tax evasion. Figure it out."

Can the legislative power of Congress be overridden by executive orders?

We Europeans will be in for a rough ride. Are we sufficiently prepared for Trump's well-prepared second term? I doubt it.

Will Trump end the Ukraine war to Putin's liking? Will he hollow out NATO?.

If he does not win the presidential election, will the US be faced with a bloodbath? Given the density of firearms in the country (1.2 per person) and the January 6, 2021, events, this is not excluded.

On leaving, the director of the Freiburg Studium Generale, Professor Werner Frick, rightly said that the speaker was sending us into the weekend with pessimistic feelings.

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The Seminar

The University of Freiburg is organizing a seminar this summer semester entitled Which Truths Can We Build Upon? Physics and Theology in Discourse.

Prof. Dr. Andreas Buchleitner, a physicist, is in charge. Other lecturers are theologians Prof. Dr. Helmut Hoping, Dr. Matthias Huber, and Prof. Dr. Magnus Striet.

Yesterday, theologian and priest Matthias Huber, who also has a degree in physics, introduced the seminar with a lecture titled Critical Realism - Models and Theories - Explaining versus Understanding (Science - Humanities).

©Matthias Huber

In his first slide, Dr. Huber showed various possibilities when science and theology meet. There is the conflict model, the independence model, the dialog/convergence/consonance model, and finally, the integration model.

©Matthias Huber

Photos of the protagonists of the above models can be seen in the picture above.

Dr. Huber started his lecture proper by citing Horst W. Beck, who shed light on the incompatibility of religious statements and earth history: "The task is, of course, no less than to create an alternative cosmology, biology, geology based on salvation history [...]. Anyone who takes the judgment of God about the biblically and extra-biblically attested Flood catastrophe seriously must rewrite geology (1979)." 

Karl Rahner sees no areas of friction since "theology and science cannot in principle come into conflict with each other because both differ from the outset in their subject matter and method (1983)." 

 Finally, Rudolf Mosis goes so far as to say that natural sciences and theology ultimately do not interfere with each other at all: "The natural scientist can discover whatever he wants with his observations; he can build whatever hypotheses and theories he wants on them: it is always only about 'nature,' never about 'salvation.' So, faith cannot be affected by all this. After that, natural scientists and theologians would perhaps live in separate houses as good, or at least compatible, neighbors. Men/women would greet each other in a friendly manner. But there would be nothing left to argue about and nothing to talk about: We would simply have nothing more to say to each other." 

These citations were an excellent introduction to the topic. But then the lecturer showed a slide whose content made me stop my hooves from pawing.

©Matthias Huber

The above table made it clear to me that natural science - and here I mean physics as in the seminar's title - is objective. Still, theology must be viewed from a subjective angle.

 In physics, the interplay between theory and experiment is fruitful. Non obstat that theorists tend to forge hypotheses, such as string theory, that still need to be supported by any experiment.

Physics is not free of induction. For example, the fluctuations in the energy field after the Big Bang, which led to the formation of galaxies in the cooling phase of our Universe, are hypothetically transferred to the state before the Big Bang. According to this hypothesis, fluctuations in the primordial energy field triggered the Big Bang. This, however, means that several Big Bangs are possible, and with them, the existence of other universes.

In the early days of physics, personal influence on experimental results may have existed. In the meantime, however, every experimental result is verified by independent parallel measurements.

What is a "truthful representation of reality?" When the tool describing phenomena in physics is mathematics how true and how real is mathematics?

The starting point of theology is a subjective personal experience of God. People wrote the holy books as a result of their interpreted experience. After the Jew Saul had his faith experience with the Lord outside Damascus, the first written testimony of the Christian faith is found in St. Paul's letters.

New experiences of God caused a split in Christianity between Catholic and Protestant theology. Islam, too, with its Sunnis and Shiites, is not free of man-made divisions, without forgetting the deep shades between orthodox, reformed, and liberal Jews.

©Matthias Huber

Dr. Huber closed his lecture with a slide stressing the consonance between science and theology.

I shall mention only three points from the following discussion:

In 1957, when Red Baron attended a lecture on theoretical mechanics in Göttingen, the lecturer referred to the teleology of mechanical processes. Still, physics is not goal-oriented in the philosophical sense.

The measurement of the Higgs (© Prof. Karl Jakobs)

The comparison between the concealment of God and the Higgs boson is absurd because the latter leaves its trace in measurements.

God does not change the past. Does God exist in our time frame?

An excited Red Baron left the seminar wanting more.

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Value Conflict between the West and the Global South

Der Wertekonflikt zwischen Westen und Globalem Süden was the title of a lecture by Professor Winfried Veit yesterday at the Museumsgesellschaft.

After the Second World War, the motherland of democracy, the United States, successfully implanted its Values in Western Europe. Since the failed attempts to democratize Vietnam and Afghanistan, the USA is no longer keen to export Western values* to other countries. 

The most important are: The dignity of man/woman is inviolable. The free development of his/her personality is guaranteed. All people are equal before the law. There is passive and active freedom of expression. Members of parliament are elected in a general, direct, free, equal, and secret election. Powers are separated into the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government.

It is not only because of its colonial past that the Global South does not follow those Western values. "You have exploited us in the past and, in many cases, still do today; why should we follow you?"

In addition to the exploitation of "their" territories, the colonial powers drew arbitrary borders that tore ethnic groups apart, which led and still leads to bloody conflicts on the African continent.

Many countries of the Global South have apparent human rights deficits. This means Western countries dependent on imports of energy and raw materials must balance realpolitik and moral politics when dealing with those governments.

Yesterday, Red Baron learned that German foreign policy is following this course. While on his suspiciously large number of trips to countries in the Global South, Chancellor Olaf Scholz tries to establish new partnerships; he only cautiously points out human rights violations. On the other hand, our Foreign Minister, Annalena Baerbock, calls for a policy of equal rights for women. So. she criticizes countries that are often dominated by Islam. Mullahs in radical Islamic states only smile wearily at her efforts.

Last Saturday in Hamburg, about 1000 demonstrating Muslims shouted,
"Overthrow the dictatorship of Values!“ and asked for a caliphate as the solution.
That's not how it works (©Die Zeit)

Although a former German president once said Islam belongs to Germany, he did not mean religiously fanatical Muslims.

Everyone is allowed to practice his/her religion in Germany. Frederick the Great already said that for him "sind alle Religionen [...] gleich und guth, wan nuhr die leüte, so sie professieren, ehrliche leüte seindt, und wenn Türken und Heiden kähmen und Wolten das Landt pöplieren, so wollen Wir sie Mosqeen und Kirchen baun, Fr. (all religions [...] are equal and good, if only the people who profess them are honest people, and if Turks and pagans come and populate the land, then we want to build them mosques and churches, Fr.).”

In 1015, the first mosque in Germany was built in Wünsdorf (Zossen), 20 km from Berlin.
It was adjacent to a POW camp where prisoners of Islamic belief were retained (©Wikipedia).

While the countries of the Global South have no qualms about taking advantage of the achievements of the West, India, China, and Brazil sometimes look down arrogantly on those decadent and outdated Western democracies.

 After the collapse of the Eastern bloc, the former West-East conflict is replaced by a multipolar world. BRICS (Brazil, Russian Federation, India, China, and South Africa) was founded as a counterweight to Western trading blocs and has more people than the USA and Europe combined. Dipesh Chakrabarty had already written earlier about Provincializing Europe.

One fact Professor Veit mentioned at the beginning of his lecture troubled me during his entire presentation: the rapid increase in Africa's population. How will the governments there feed these people? Television images from South Sudan or Yemen with malnourished children and haggard, pregnant women shock me every time. Payment options on screen following these unbearable pictures ask the capitalist West for humanitarian help.

Is the only consolation we Westerners have left the idea of being a beacon of Values in a disintegrating world?

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Democracy - Foundations and Challenges

This is the title of a series of highly topical lectures at Freiburg University during the summer semester of 2024, presented within the framework of the studium generale. 2024 is a super-election year not only in the States but also in Europe (European Parliament) and Germany (three state elections). Will the results of these elections celebrate democracy?

These lectures are also known as Samstags-UNI (Saturday University). This morning, Red Baron went downtown with the aim of getting hold of a printed copy of the full program of the studium generale.

So I came to listen to Professor Rainer Forst from the University of Frankfurt talking about Demokratie in Zeiten der Regression. Normative und zeitdiagnostische Überlegungen (Democracy in times of regression; normative and time-diagnostic considerations).

Everyone knows that democracy is not limited to electing new members of parliament every four or five years, who then pass laws and thus decide the fate of their fellow citizens.

 Parliaments are elected in many countries around the world, but some of these states are not democracies. Here is a map you have seen before showing the status of democracy worldwide.

There are dictatorships with a one-party system that is sold as Popular Democracy. Alleged democratic states are curtailing the powers of the third branch, i.e., the judiciary. Restrictions on freedom of expression go hand in hand with restricted freedom of the press. There are democracies where not every vote cast counts the same.

In a parliamentary, liberal, and representative democracy, all people are equal. However, this also means that the majority's decision must not only consider the minority but must actually protect it. In a true democracy, there must be no exclusion of people. Do parliaments decide in the interest of the people or in the interest of a particular party?

One of the major weaknesses of the current world order is its growing social inequality. According to Professor Forst, the banking crisis of 2008 was one of the biggest disasters in recent years. Here, taxpayers had to bail out the big banks, which have not ensured that the difference between rich and poor has become smaller since.

However, the majority of the poor do not rebel against the minority of the rich. Instead, most people see the problem of immigration as even more severe than global climate change.

The difficulty is that the above problems can no longer be solved at a national level, only at an international level. We are, therefore, particularly called upon to speak with one voice as a European democracy. Wishful thinking?

All efforts are needed, and much remains to be done to defend our democracies against authoritarian, illiberal, and populist attacks.

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The Call for Freedom

This is the title of an exhibition at the Dreiländermuseum in Lörrach. In 1848, the revolutionary marches of Hecker and Struve started here in the south of Baden, and in 1849, the drama of the Baden Revolution ended.

One of Red Baron's main interests is the European revolutionary efforts of the time, focusing on the Baden Revolution.

I keep returning to this topic in my blogs because there is always something new to discover.

It was the same this time when I took the ÖPNV (public transport) to Lörrach to participate in a guided tour of the exhibition The Call for Freedom.

I had hoped to find an interesting account of the Baden Revolution and was not disappointed. In addition, our history-interested group had a guide who, as it later turned out, was a Wikipedia contributor, i.e., a colleague. Well acquainted with the subject, I enjoyed his professional explanations, and, as usual, I learned something new.

I don't want to stretch the Baden Revolution here. Instead, I refer you to a detailed account in German on my Freiburg history page. Here, I'll share some finds from the exhibition.

The trigger for the revolutionary movements in Europe was the February 24, 1848, uprising in France, which toppled the regime of the Citizen King installed 18 years earlier.

Liberté (Françoise Désirée), the daughter of the people, was born in Paris on July 27, 1830.
The speech bubbles:
So be firm! Some bourgeois circles ask: But why? We're overwhelmed. I lack the strength.
But the clergy is behind: Don't give up; I'll be back soon.

In this allegorical depiction, Liberty (desired by the French), born in Paris on July 27, the day of the 1830 revolution, is strangled by the reactionary forces of Louis Phillipe's regime. So, it was time for a new revolution.

Heart and Hand for God and the Fatherland

The flag of the Lörrach militia of 1848, lovingly embroidered with golden letters by their revolutionary wives, was on display. Its color sequence is gold, red, and black, i.e., reversed. Read this blog.

 

Amalie Struve with Friedrich Hecker

The exhibition also pays tribute to women who did not embroider in the background but participated actively in the revolution. In addition to the well-known Amalie Struve and Emma Herwig, there are also:

Mathilde Franziska Anneke and

Elise Blenker

Even then, historical misinformation existed; today, we would call it fake news. 

History has always been falsified. In a painting from 1850 depicting the Battle on the Scheideck, the painter M. Jacob shows the revolutionaries confronting the government troops under a red flag. "Communist" Hecker stands next to a cannon. The red flag is just as ahistorical as the firing of a cannon, two of which the insurgents were carrying but were unable to fire due to the lack of ammunition.

The fatherland must be saved from lawlessness and a republic.
Charlottenburg, May 16, 1849 (Click to enlarge)

This exhibition was where I first encountered Frederick William IV's call for Prussian troops to intervene in southwestern Germany to defeat the "criminals."

Most impressive: Democracies and dictatorships around the world today. The colors, ranging from dark blue to dark red, are self-explanatory. Is Canada more democratic than the US, and is China more oppressed than Russia?

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